Rise of Dictatorship
•Rise of Dictatorship In Italy and Germany
The Causes of the Rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy:
In Italy totalitarianism emerged in the shape of Fascism under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. It emerged as a movement in the Post World War I period not only to meet the challenges of the international communist movement but also to tackle the various economic, political and social problems which confronted Italy. The following were the main causes of the rise of Fascism.
1. Dissatisfaction with the Peace Treaties : Italy had joined the First World War on the side of Britain and France in 1915 AD. She hoped to get large territories. But the Paris Peace Treaties gave her nothing from the defeated German and Turkish empires. So among the Italians a feeling developed that they "had won the War, but lost the peace." The Italians felt badly cheated by their Wartime Allies.
2. Economic Crisis : The War had caused a great economic strain on Italy's economy. At the end of the War, thousands of soldiers, discharged from the army, were now unemployed. Even the employed workers were underpaid and their working conditions were not satisfactory at all. There was steep price rise and inflation in the country. This reduced production and added to the miseries of the common people. Moreover, War debts and deficit budgets hit them even worst. Trade and commerce declined. It appeared that Italy was heading towards a communist revolution, as had happened in Russia. So the capitalists in Italy gave financial support to Mussolini in the rise of Fascism.
3. Inefficient and Weak Democratic Governments : In 1919 AD., a parliamentary government, based on male adult franchise, was introduced in Italy for the first time. But the electorate failed to give a clear majority to any political party. Between 1919 and 1922 six coalition governments were formed in Italy.
There came a series of short-lived coalition governments in Italy, with neither consistency nor continuity in their policies. These governments were unable to deal effectively with the frequent strikes and riots in the country. In the communist sponsored strikes, the workers often broke the machinery and captured the factories. But the general people and especially, the industrialists, were sick of these strikes and sabotages, etc. They wanted strong leadership to handle the crisis. This was provided by the Fascist Party under their leader, Benito Mussolini.
4. Fascist Propaganda : It was in this situation that Mussolini formed the Fascist Party in March, 1919. He was a journalist by profession. He emphasized that a strong State was necessary to take the Italian nation forward. Benito Mussolini supported aggressive nationalism. He attracted ex-soldiers, salaried persons, farmers, workers and young people. They formed different groups called Fascios. The industrialists were willing to give him financial help, if he fought against the communists and the socialists.
5. Class Conflicts : The economy was in crisis and the workers were agitating for higher wages and better conditions of work. Italy seemed to be heading towards a communist revolution. The businessmen, landlords and industrialists, viewed the growing strength of labour unions with alarm. They provided financial support to fascism to suppress the workers.
6. Rise of totalitarian Ideologies The philosophy of Engels, with great intellectual depth had flourished in Italy for years. But irrational and anti-intellectual philosophy of Alfred Rocco appealed to the masses as it glorified power.
In Russia, after the Revolution of 1917, political power was in the hands of one party. The government had been using terror to enforce obedience. These ideas appealed to the masses in Italy and Germany.
7. Charismatic leader : Mussolini was called Duce (leader) as he was able to attract, influence and inspire people by his personal qualities.
The word, Fascism is derived from the Italian word, Fascio, meaning a bundle of sticks, signifying that strength lies in unity. "Unity, Strength and Authority" are the watchwords of Fascism. Thus, Fascism is a system or form of dictatorship in which the whole authority of the state is vested in a single person. All citizens must obey him without rhyme or reason.
•Rise of Mussolini
They took over whatever came their way. King Victor Emmanuel Ill of Italy invited Mussolini to become the Prime Minister. Mussolini became the real ruler of Italy. He declared himself as the Duce, i.e., the leader of the country. He began the reign of terror. The Communists and the Trade Unionists were arrested, imprisoned and executed.
The Main Principles of Fascism and Mussolini's Aims
The following were the main principles of Fascism and Mussolini's Aims :
1 . Opposition to democracy, rights and liberties of the people. There must be total stress on duties and obligations.
2. There must be the rule of a single party and a single leader, with full authority in his hands.
3. There must be absence of opposition. No criticism of the leader on any account was allowed.
4. State was more important than the individual, who must bow before it.
5. Emphasis must be laid on nationalism, national spirit and national unity.
6. There must be full support for imperialist and aggressive foreign policy to make the country gain in status in international community.
7. They favoured equal control over all sections of society, i.e., capitalists, industrialists, landlords, labourers, peasants and artisans.
8. They regarded quality more important than quantity and the Fascist leaders who embodied the will, sentiments and emotions of the people were symbols of a nation's pride.
•Impact of the rise of Fasict Dictatorship
Benito Mussolini remained the dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1945, till his death. The impact of the rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy is mentioned below:
(i) Restoration of Law and Order : Mussolini restored law and order by banning all other political parties.
(ii) Economic Reforms and Prosperity Mussolini's economic policies laid emphasis on selfreliance. He brought the economy on track. He reduced government expenditure, improved basic infrastructure and reclaimed land for agriculture.
(ii) Economic Reforms and Prosperity : Mussolini's economic policies laid emphasis on selfreliance. He brought the economy on track. He reduced government expenditure, improved basic infrastructure and reclaimed land for agriculture.
(iii) Aggressive Foreign Policy : Mussolini promoted national spirit in Italy through his Fascios. He made military training compulsory for the youth and made efforts to enhance the naval power. He also followed a vigorous and aggressive foreign policy to revive the past glories of the Roman Empire and to make Italy a great nation. He used to proclaim, "Italy must expand or perish".
Besides these positive impacts, there were many negative effects of Fascism in Italy. All efforts were made to curb political freedom. After gaining power, Mussolini became a dictator and took all the military and civil powers into his own hands. All political parties except the Fascists were banned. Press was censored. The freedom of speech and organising meetings were also prohibited. Mussolini crushed his opponents brutally.
But all this did not help him and Italy much. She joined the World War II against Britain and France, and was defeated in 1943 AD. With it, the Fascism also came to an end. Rome was conquered by the Allies in 1944 AD.
•The rise of Nazi Dictatorship in Germany
The rise of Nazism was the greatest event in the world history.
Causes of the Rise of Nazi Dictatorship in Germany:
1. Political Instability in Germany : After her defeat in the First World War, Germany also faced economic crisis, revolts, disorder, lawlessness, unemployment, rise of prices, etc. William Kaiser II was unable to solve these problems. He was forced to abdicate and he fled to Holland on November 10, 1918 to save his life. Elections were held to the new Constituent Assembly on January 19, 1919 which met at Weimar, and adopted the new Constitution, which set up a democratic government called the Weimar Republic.
But it failed to solve the current problems of the Germans. Under the Weimar Republic, there existed political instability. Between 1919-1933 AD., as many as 21 coalition governments were formed and fell. Democracy failed to give any relief to the people. The Germans felt only a strong man could restore the past prestige of Germany. Hitler promised a stable and strong government. He won the support of the people. Moreover, Nazi party did not encounter any effective resistance as there was absence of any strong opposition party.
2. Reaction to the humiliating Treaty of Versailles : The Treaty of Versailles imposed very humiliating terms on Germany, like paying huge war penalties to the victors, ceding chunks of German territory to them including her overseas colonies and disbanding German armies. The Treaty of Versailles was signed by the officers of the German Democratic Republic in Paris in 1919 A.D. The people began to look upon the Weimar Republic (which accepted the terms and conditions of the humiliating Treaty of Versailles) as a symbol of national disgrace and an act of betrayal of the German people.
3. The Economic Disaster : Unemployment, inflation, price-rise, ruin of German trade and industry, coupled with general world depression created an economic disaster of the worst order in Germany. The Government's policy of borrowing failed to solve the economic crisis. To cap it all, Germany was to pay heavy War reparations out of her crippled economy. Hitler promised relief to the people on the economic front and he won their confidence.
4. Threat of Communism : The Communists in Germany tried to stage a revolution on the pattern of the Soviet Revolution of 1917 A.D. Hitler feared that if the Communists succeeded in their plans in Germany, it will make her a satellite of Soviet Russia. So he exposed the Communists before the people. As a result, they preferred to join the Nazi Party than the Communist Party.
5. Hitler's Dynamic Personality : Hitler had a dynamic personality. He was influential. He was a great organizer, an excellent orator and a tireless
worker. His logic was convincing and his appeals touched the reasons and the emotions of the people.
Hitler's Rise to Power or the Rise of the Nazi Party:
The rise of the Nazi Party and the rise of Hitler to power are interlinked. Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 A.D. in Austria. He fought on the German side in the First World War. He got the "Iron Cross" for his bravery.
In 1919 A.D., Hitler joined a small political group called the German Workers' Party in Munich. Soon he became its Fuhrer i.e., the leader. He changed the name of the party to National Socialist Party which became more famous by the name of the Nazi Party.
In 1923 A.D., Hitler had attempted a coup against Weimer Republic. This event is known as Beer Hall Putsch. His attempts failed and was arrested and jailed for five years. In the jail, he wrote his famous autobiograply named Mein Kampf (My Struggle).
After his release from the jail, Hitler reorganized the Nazi Party from 1925-1929 A.D. A past master in the art of propaganda, he defamed the Weimar Republic for the sufferings of the people.
In the election of July 1932, the Nazis polled more than 13 million votes and captured 230 seats in the Reichstag but failed to get the majority. The Nazi Party made the functioning of the coalition government impossible. Ultimately, President Hindenburg of Germany was compelled by these circumstances to appoint Hitler as the Chancellor (i.e., the Prime Minister) of the coalition government in January, 1933.
Immediately after coming to power, Hitler got passed the Enabling Act, which authorised his Government to take any action without the approval of the Reichstag. Thus, without even having the majority, Hitler became all powerful. The Nazi regime practically became a one-man show. President Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934. On that very day, Hitler combined in his own person, the offices of the Chancellor (i.e., Prime Minister) and the President. From then onwards, he assumed the title of the Fuhrer i.e., Leader and became the absolute dictator of Germany.
Main Features of Nazism and Aims of Hitler:
Hitler's cult, his creed and philosophy were called Nazism. The following were its main principles and Hitler's aims :
1 . The people exist for the State, rather than the State for the people. He believed in a Totalitarian State.
2. To tolerate no opposition or criticism and to allow no party formation other than his own.
3. To put an end to parliamentary institutions and the democratic government.
4. To have full control on education, press, radio and other means of propaganda.
5. To crush communism and liberalism.
6. To uphold the belief in the superiority of the German race and blood, and to establish that it was their destiny to rule over inferior races of the world.
7. To turn out the Jews from Germany, because they had caused great hardship to the German people due to their greed and conspiracy, during the First World War.
8. To denounce the Treaty of Versailles as disgraceful and to regain the lost or ceded German territories.
9. To make Germany a strong military power and to carry the Swastika mark all over the world.
10. To inculcate the spirit of nationalism among the German people.
Similarities in the Aims of Fascism and Nazism
The identical nature of politico-economic problems of Italy and Germany, the almost similar manner of coming into power of Mussolini and Hitler who established Facist and Nazi dictatorships in their respective countries, both had almost similar aims and characteristics which are given below:
1. Totalitarianism and Opposition of Democracy : Both were against Democracy. Mussolini has written : "We vehemently oppose the world of democracy, a world which still wants to cling to the radical principles of 1789". The Fascist political philosophy does not agree that the majority has the right to rule. Democracy raises the public to a divine status. In place of this, Fascism puts the Duce or the Fuhrer before the public. He is their god and gives weightage to quality over numbers. Both Nazism and Fascism were sworn enemies of liberalism, democracy and Multiparty system. Hitler asserted that country should be governed by those whom "Nature has endowed with special gifts". Both the Fascist and the Nazi rulers did not allow anyone other than their own party to operate in the country. Their order was that life should be made impossible for their opponents.
2. Aggressive Nationalism and imperialistic policies : Both Nazism and Fascism believed in the principle of the 'survival of the fittest' which is the law of life. The strongest alone have the right to survive and rule. Both believed in the principle of expansion. Hitler believed that nation became great only by defeating other nations in war. Both Hitler and Mussolini pursued an expansionist policy abroad. In May, 1936 Italian troops captured Addis Ababa, capital of Ethiopia. Hitler also captured Austria, Denmark, Czechoslovakia, Norway, Luxemberg, Holland and Belgium and Paris too, fell to the Nazis.
3. Racial superiority : Racial superiority is the most important element in the Fascism concept of nation - state. According to Hitler Nordic (Aryan race) civilization of Germany reared the world's best race. And it is a natural law that it is entitled to rule all the races in the world. He believed that all the people of the Aryan race in Europe must be united in the German empire. In the name of the 'Aryan Principle', lakhs of Jews were mercilessly killed by the Nazis. In 1938 Mussolini also adopted an anti-Jewish policy under the Nazi influence. The Jews were expelled from the party and denied government jobs.
5. Anti-Communism : Fascism claimed to be neither capitalistic nor socialistic. It protected private property but placed it under state control. Strikes and lockouts were forbidden. Rapid rearmament and industrial growth were placed in the hands of the government as the country had been placed under perpetual war economy
6. Anti-Intellectualism : Mussolini believed that "it is faith that moves mountains, not reason". His motto to his countrymen was "to behave, to obey, to fight". The Fascists and Nazis sought to create a society based on myths, example
(a) Leader is ever right
(b) international peace is a coward's dream
(c) Imperialism is the eternal law of life
(d) extolled war and militarism.
Hitler and Mussolini believed that a strong state was necessary to take the nation forward. They glorified the use of force and brutality.
Differences between Nazism and Fascism
- Though Fascism originated in Italy, it did not become as strong as Nazism in Germany.
- Fascism in Italy was not as efficient as Nazism in Germany. The system failed in creating self-sufficiency or eliminating unemployment.
- The Nazis were more ruthless as compared to the fascists. The Italian system didn't indulge in mass atrocities as Hitler did with the Jews in Germany.
- Though the fascists were in absolute control of state, the monarchy still remained in Italy. The Nazis, on the other hand, had ruthlessly crushed and eliminated any opposition to their rule.
•Hitler's and mussolinis Domestic and Foreign Policies
After coming into power, both Hitler and Mussolini followed a vigorous domestic and foreign policies.
The following points may be mentioned in this regard :
Hitler's Domestic Policy
1. Setting up of a strong national State in Germany : (Reign of Terror) Hitler worked for the unity and strength of Germany.
She became a dictatorship, with all powers in the hands of her leader, all opposition parties eliminated, criticism disallowed, rights denied to the people, democracy crushed, and a secret police under the name of Gestapo established to spy over everyone. The Germans were told that Hitler was Germany and Germany was Hitler. He established the rule of one man, one leader and one party i.e., the Nazi Party. In this way, national unity was brought about in Germany. The Radio, the Press and all other means of propaganda were controlled by the State. Even education was re-planned so as to promote Nazism, German nationalism and her unity.
2. Economic Reforms and Development Work:
- He followed the policy of Five Year Plan.
- To increase production and to prove more employment opportunities stress was laid on manufacturing.
- To increase agricultural production large state controlled farms were set up.
- Under the plan to modernize the defense forces Germany started manufacturing naval and airships.
- Prices of essential items were kept under control.
- Imports and exports were also controlled to maintain a favourable Balance of trade.
3. Anti-Jews Policies (Anti-Semitic Propaganda) : The Nazi Party and Hitler showed a great dislike for the Jews, Christians and Communists. They held them responsible for the German defeat in the First World War, due to their betrayal.
- Hitler put a large number of Jews in the concentration camps.
- They were denied German citizenship, dismissed from government jobs and prohibited from practising medicine, law and many other professions.
- The Jews were forced to live in Ghettos, in isolation. No Jew could marry a German.
Hitler wanted to eliminate the Jewish race completely. According to an estimate, he put to death about six million of them, including men, women and children.
Hitler's Foreign Policy
1. Disregarded the Treaty of Versailles : Hitler had started the rearmament and compulsory military service in gross violation of the Treaty of Versailles. He preached the gospel of 'Victorious sword'. He said, 'he who does not wish to fight has not the right to exist in the world.' He not only stopped the payment of War Indemnity, but also took back the territory of Saar from France in 1934 A.D. In 1936 A.D., German troops re-entered Rhineland and fortified it, while it had been demilitarised by the Treaty of Versailles.
2. An Imperialist and Expansionist Foreign Policy:
- Hitler had imperialist designs and wanted to establish the rule of the Swastika over the world.
- He wanted to unite all German speaking people in one country under the policy called Deutschland.
- To aquire more territories Hitler made use of force and rejected all international treaties.
- In 1934 he entered into a non-aggression treaty with Poland for a period of ten years for the safety of his eastern frontiers.
- He reclaimed the territory of Saar and Rhineland from France.
- In 1936 A.D., he made a treaty with Italy, known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. Later, when Japan also joined them in 1937 A.D., it was known as Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis. He also concluded the Non-aggression Pact with Russia.
He attacked Sudetenland and Austria in 1938. He acquired Czechoslovakia with the connivance of Britain and France due to the Munich Pact. Both Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement towards Germany under Hitler. They did not oppose him, when attacked the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 A.D. He also conquered Denmark, Norway, Luxemberg and Belgium.
3. Pan-German Unity: Hitler believed that all the people of the Aryan race must be united in the German Empire. It meant that Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia and few other territories in Eastern Europe should be unified through conquest.
4. Hatred For Jews : Hitler followed an anti-Jewish policy. The Nazi Party and Hitler showed a great dislike for the Jews. They held them responsible for German defeat in the First World War, due to their betrayal. He put large number of Jews in the concentration camps.
Fall of Hitler
It was only when Hitler attacked Poland on 1st September, 1939 that Britain and France issued an ultimatum to Germany, which Hitler ignored. Thus began the Second World War in which Germany was totally defeated by the Allied Powers. She surrendered in 1945 A.D. Hitler is said to have committed suicide. With his death, Nazism and Nazi dictatorial regime also came to an end.
Mussolini's Domestic and Foreign Policies :
Mussolini's Home Policy : Mussolini rose to power with the support of his people ; therefore, he wanted to fulfil their aspirations. He took several steps in this field.
1. Law and order : After assuming the office of the Prime Minister, Mussolini became very powerful. He eliminated all opposition. He appointed faithful fascists to highest posts in Civil and Military departments. A fascist Militia, the voluntary Fascist militia for National security and the Grand Council of Fascism (the highest authority of the Fascist Party) was made part of the state. In this way he established Law and order in the country.
2. Economic Reforms and Prosperity :
- Mussolini reduced government expenditure, improved transport and communication, reclaimed land and increased agricultural yield.
- He took measures to devaluate the Italian currency.
- He set up hydroelectric power plants to overcome the shortage of coal.
- All factories and mills were nationalised to improve the lot of workers.
3. Establishment of Corporations : He introduced the theory of a corporate state. The workers and employers had their separate syndicates. There were 13 syndicates in all ; the main were-Agricultural, Trade and Commerce, Industry, Insurance, Banking, air and overseas transport, etc. In the national corporations both workers and employers had equal representation. The National Council of Corporations had a central committee which included all Fascist Ministers. The state fixed minimum wages for the workers, who were also given unemployment benefits and paid holidays. Workers' working hours were fixed.
4. Educational Reforms : A large number of schools were set up in different parts of the country. Education for children aged 6-14 years was made compulsory. Its aim was to give education according to fascist principles. Textbooks were written on fascist lines.
5. Measures against the Jews : Mussolini was against the Jews. He wanted to maintain the superiority of the Italians. Therefore, he imposed several restrictions on the Jews. They were asked to leave Italy within six months. They were sacked from government jobs. Jews were debarred from practising in Law courts.
Foreign Policy
Mussolini's aggressive foreign policy brought disaster to Italy. He began to dream of a World Empire. He said Italy must expand or Perish. Production of armaments was increased. The world powers began to treat her with greater respect.
1. Occupation of Rhodes and Dodecanese islands : The first success of Mussolini was the occupation of Rhodes and Dodecanese islands. In 1923, the Treaty of Laussane ratified Italy's occupation of these islands.
2. Occupation of Ethiopia : In 1936, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, the Ethiopian soldiers surrendered before the Italian forces. In 1936, Eritria and Somali land were merged with Ethiopia and a new state called Italian East Africa came into being.
3. Rome-Berlin Axis : Mussolini's Ethiopian invasion was condemned by several powers but Germany kept silent. Both Germany and Italy were against Russian Communism. In 1936, they signed a pact, which came to be known as Rome-Berlin Axis. In 1936 Italy resigned from the membership of League of Nations.
4. Friendship with European Powers : In order to rectify the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, Mussolini started making friendly relations with other European powers. In 1924 he recognised the communist government of Russia. In 1935, Rome Pact was signed with France. In 1935, he signed a treaty with Britain. In 1939, he made a full alliance with Germany and joined the war against the Allies in 1940 A.D.
Fall of Mussolini : Italy's position had become untenable by the summer of 1943 as the Allies had attacked Sicily and were planning to march on Rome. The factories were ground to a virtual standstill due to lack of raw materials, coal and oil. There was a chronic shortage of food also. Most of the members of the Italian Fascist government had turned against Mussolini. He was summoned by King Victor Emmanuel Ill and was dismissed. He was arrested on 28th April, 1945 and was later on shot dead.
Failures and weaknesses of Fascism and Nazism :
(i) Brought about violence and terror
(ii) Attacking Russia was a major blunder on Hitler's part
(iii) Led to coups and conspiracies
(iv) Brought danger to the world peace.
Achievements of Nazism and Fascism :
(i) Civil order and increase in efficiency
(ii) National cohension - the rulers could unify their countrymen and gave them a faith to live by and a cause to die for.
(iii) Stability was brought about.
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